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How to Use HashMap in C++
C++'s unordered_map (commonly known as HashMap in other languages) is a powerful container that stores key-value pairs using hash tables. It provides average constant-time complexity for insertions, deletions, and lookups, making it an essential tool for efficient...
How to Calculate Cohen’s Kappa in R
Inter-rater reliability is crucial in research involving multiple raters or judges. Cohen's Kappa stands out as a robust statistic that accounts for chance agreement, making it particularly valuable in fields like psychology, medicine, and education. This...
Counting Model Parameters in PyTorch
In deep learning, parameters are the backbone of every neural network. Whether you're building a simple classifier or a complex deep learning model, understanding how to manage parameters effectively in PyTorch is crucial for success. This comprehensive guide will...
Solve “Function Was Not Declared in this Scope” Error in C++
Introduction The "function was not declared in this scope" error is one of the most common compilation errors encountered by C++ developers. This error occurs when you try to use a function that hasn't been properly declared or made visible to the compiler at the...
Simpson’s Diversity Index: Calculating Species Dominance and Evenness
Underwater view of a coral in the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland near Cairns, Australia. Image credit: Alexandre.ROSA / Shutterstock Simpson's Diversity Index is a fundamental tool in ecological research that measures both species richness and evenness...
Shannon Diversity Index and Equitability: Understanding Biodiversity Metrics
Bottom-up view of a mangrove forest canopy, showcasing nature's approach to carbon capture. Image credit: Fahroni / Shutterstock In the realm of ecological research, understanding and quantifying biodiversity is crucial for conservation efforts, ecosystem management,...
R vs. R-Squared: Understanding the Key Differences
In statistical analysis, R (correlation coefficient) and R² (coefficient of determination) are two related but distinct measures that help us understand relationships between variables. While they're mathematically connected, they serve different purposes and provide...
Understanding Y-hat: Predicted Values in Regression Analysis
In regression analysis, ŷ (pronounced "y-hat") represents the predicted or fitted value of the dependent variable. It's a fundamental concept that helps us understand how well our regression model performs and make predictions for new data points. Contents What is ŷ...
How to Calculate Sxy in Statistics with Example
In statistical analysis, Sxy (sum of cross products) is a crucial concept that measures the joint variability between x and y values. This measure is fundamental in understanding the relationship between variables and forms the basis for many statistical techniques,...
How to Calculate Sxx in Statistics with Example
In statistical analysis, Sxx (sum of squares of x) is a fundamental concept that measures the total variability in your x-values. While it's valuable on its own, understanding Sxx becomes particularly important when analyzing relationships between variables, such as...